The story of the Stupa

In 1936, A.H. Longhurst, former Superintendent in the Archaeological Survey of India, published a book titled “The Story of the Stupa”. It traced the evolution of the stupa, far before the era of Gautama Buddha and well into modern times.

It had four chapters, three of which were seemingly unrelated to stupas. The first explained the significance of the umbrella in Indian culture,and the extremely high privilege it held symbolically, at the time of Longhurst’s writing.

Megalithic Origins

Longhurst begins not with megalithic monuments, especially in Kerala. Kodakallu is a class of monument, whose name literally means umbrella-stone in Malayalam (koda=umbrella; kallu=stone). It is aptly named for its shape. These are burial monuments. A massive stone is placed over the grave of a corpse; such pre-historic burial monuments, called dolmens, are found all over India. Usually they are merely large and crude; the umbrella shaped versions are found only in Kerala, and this one in the picture is a masterpiece for its perfection, which must have been achieved only using stone tools.

Longhurst explains that the heavy stone is to prevent the spirit of the dead from coming alive and haunting the living. Extant tribes with such animist beliefs and fears are common all over the world.

Burial sites are common among prehistoric peoples, even in India, which contrasts sharply with the Hindu custom of cremating the dead.

Dolmen, Mallachandram
Picture : Manonmani Puduezhuthu

Koda kallu

Buddhist Stupas

Buddhists and Jains constructed stupas to bury their saints, though today only excavated Buddhist stupas seem to have survived in India. Stupas are mentioned even in Vedic literature.

While the most famous stupas are for Gautama Buddha himself, hundreds of other people, mostly monks in the Buddhist sangha also had stupas. Cunningham excavated a casket in Bhilsa on which was inscribed the name of Haritiputra, a disciple of Buddha. Scattered around major stupas in places like Vaishali, Sanchi, Nalanda, Ratnagiri etc are the stupas of several monks of local monasteries.

The famous stupas of massive structure and intricate art, like Sanchi, Amaravati and Bharhut, contends Longhurst, are exceptions, rather than the rule. Sanchi is exceptional in another way. Its claim to fame is not any direct connection with Buddha, but that it was the hometown of Vidisha Devi, one of Maurya Asoka’s favorite queens.

Importance of Umbrellas

Exploring the ceremonial and social significance of umbrellas, Longhurst says they were reserved for the Gods and their human representatives, royalty. This is especially visible in the sculptures  and paintings over two millennia, as also recorded history and administrave texts. The umbrella of the enemy king was a prized possession, to be captured in battle. Temple processions often feature ceremonial umbrellas of the Gods. Chariots (rathas) are often topped by umbrellas. An inscription in Tiruvarur, Tamilnadu, speaks of the privilege of carrying an umbrella, granted to a devadasi.

Jain tirthankaras, except Parshvanatha, are always shown with triple umbrellas.  Jain acharyas have only one umbrella over them. While it is quite common to see images of Buddha featuring single umbrellas, some monuments like Pithalkora, show triple umbrella over Buddha also, in paintings.

The Hindu God Vinayaka is popularly featured with an umbrella over his head. Paper umbrellas are quite popular during Vinayaka Chathurthi. Mahishasura Mardhini is also often featured with an umbrella. The major Gods though, are rarely shown with an umbrella; Vamana is one such rarity. Unusual exceptions are a Kalyana Sundara sculpture in Kanchi Kailasanatha, a standing Brahma in Pullamangai.

The funerals of the Todas, a Nilgiri tribe, even today feature umbrellas over the funeral car. This is remarkably similar to a Gandharan sculpture showing the Buddha’s own funeral car, with umbrellas.

Toda funeral procession

The custom was so strong in India that even Muslim rulers of India adopted it as a royal emblem, even though neither the nations of their origins nor Islam gave umbrellas any social significance. Europeans of the 17^th century, who had also no special status for umbrellas in their culture, were forced to stow away or surrender their common sun protection umbrellas, when entering the city of Delhi.

Evolution of Stupas

The earliest stupas of Buddha were of mud and brick, as befitting a renunciate. One such mud stupa has remnants in Vaishali. During the era of Asoka, these were dismantled, and the buried relics of Buddha apportioned and distributed to hundreds of stupas across Jambudvipa. These stupas were usually undecorated. It is only the vedikas surrounding the stupas, as in Sanchi or Amaravai, or the entrance arches, that were richly adorned in sculptures. Perhaps one exception is a brick and mortar stupa at Nalanda, which features images of the Buddha, but its age is uncertain.

The stupa slowly evolved from a mound over a burial, to a symbolic object of worship. This is best shown by the rock cut stupas of Kanheri, Karle, Ajanta, Pithalkhora etc., where the stupas are carved out of the mother rock – no monk was buried under them. Like the earlier brick stupas of Sanchi, Amaravati, etc, these too feature harmikas over them. Some but not all stupas in Kanheri and Pithalkora, have an umbrella carved on the ceiling of the cave, over the stupa. Paintings in the pillars of the large chaitya at Pithalkora, and cave 9 in Ajanta, feature Buddha with triple umbrellas. The stupa in Ajanta cave 19 is quite elaborate – it features a several bas relief images of the Buddha, and also an intricate triple umbrella.  

Mud stupa,Vaishali, Bihar

Bhaja stupa with harmika, no umbrella

Karle stupa with umbrella

Kanheri stupa with umbrella on ceiling

Ajanta Cave Nineteen
Elaborate stupa with Buddha image
and triple umbrella

A parallel evolution can be seen in stupas in Sri Lanka, the earliest ones being mainly massive brick mounds, but the later dagobas featuring more architectural triple umbrellas. Dagoba is a contraction of dhatu-garbha. Hiuen Tsang in his travels, records multi storeyed wooden temples for Buddha one of which in Rajagriha (Rajgir, Bihar), was completely burnt in a fire accident, which he witnessed. These wooden temples, notes Longhurst, continue in two regions, Kerala and the Himalayas. He specially observes that Nepal, which was never ravaged by Islamic invasions, best preserves Hindu and Buddhist temples from a millennium ago, and perhaps an even older era. 

The influence of Hiuen Tsang and other pilgrim monks who took Buddhism to China and other east Asian nations can still be felt in their architecture of their Buddhist stupas and temples. They must have been copies of what existed in India at that time, argues Longhurst, hence a snapshot in time. But the mounds got shorter and the symbolic umbrellas got more and more elaborate, as reflected in in Shwedagon Pagoda, Burma or the White Dagoba in Beijing. An even later rendition is the Yukishiji pagoda in Japan, where the upper storeys, are not functional, but decorative, being architectural versions of the umbrella.

White Dagoba, Beijing - with umbrella
Picture : Wikipedia

Shwedagon Pagoda, Burma
Picture: Wikipedia

Yakushiji Temple, Japan
Picture : Japan-Guide.com

Such umbrellas and inscribed figures, not just of Buddha, but several yakshas and yakshis, can be also seen in the votive stupas in Ratnagiri, Orissa, which were discovered only in the 1970s.

Remarks

I wonder if Longhurst’s conjecture, even the whole book, could have been proposed by a scholar today. The umbrella has been democratized.He lived and wrote in the 1920-30s, when the princely states of India and royal regalia were visible and omnipresent. Perhaps also to be kept in mind, is that, several such conjectures were made in the early days of Oriental research, that time has falsified. Still, a remarkable book.

Other related Links
Vaishali - a visit
The Art of Amaravati
Ajanta - An overview (Prof Swaminathan's slideshow)
Introduction to Amaravati sculptures (lecture video)

Photo Credits
Most of the photos in this essay are my own. Links for others here.
Kodakallu, Kerala : Miyapadavu Social Club
Thiruvarur temple chariot - Wikipedia
White Daboga, Beijing - Wikipedia
Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon, Myanmar (Burma) - Wikipedia
Yakushiki temple, Japan - Japan Guide
Toda funeral This website (link broken)

The Rediscovery of Brahmi, Asoka, and Indian History

The Road Roller of Bihar

While building a road in Bihar, in the early nineteenth century, the supervisor of the construction project noticed that the road-roller seemed to be narrower at one end and broader at the other. On closer inspection, he found some inscriptions on its side, which that Brahmin pandit of the nearby village was unable to read. He could not even identify the script (which he called the pin-men script) or the language of the inscription. It seemed to be a pillar from some monument. The road workers told the supervisor that the pillar had a lion capital, which they cut off, so the pillar could be more useful as a road-roller. Such was the fate Samrat Asoka’s pillar!

The road supervisor was James Prinsep, who discovered that the language was Pali, the script Brahmi,the capital destined to become India’s national emblem, the the king and his dynasty forgotten, by a country with teeming not just with history, but with people who cared not a whit about it. Ironically, most of us schooled in independent India are now familiar with Asoka and his pillar and utterly ignorant of Prinsep.

When Prinsep stumbled upon the pillar, he was a member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which had been founded in 1784 by Sir William “Oriental” Jones, a polymath of tremendous accomplishment, to whose contribution to India was immense, and who is almost as spectacularly forgotten as Prinsep.

Sir William "Oriental" Jones

Jones & the Asiatic Society of Bengal

The East India company and later, the British government, were the funnels through which India was enriched by Western science and industrialization. The Asiatic Society was the funnel through which new fields in the humanities, like Geology, Numismatics, Archaeology, Anthropology, Economics, Art History, all recently evolving in Europe, enriched India. Jones, a child prodigy, master of 28 languages, and scholar of law, was appointed as a Puisne Judge of the Calcutta Supreme Court in 1783. He formulated an agenda to study the law, sciences, mathematics, history, geography, medicine, trade, manufacture, agriculture and religions of not just India, but all of Asia. He surmounted obstacles to quickly learn Sanskrit, and found such a similarity between it, Persian, Latin and Greek, that he proposed that they all had a common ancestry.

His oft quoted passage from his third lecture is : “The Sanskrit language, whatever its antiquity is of a perfect structure, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than Latin, more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both a stronger affinity, in roots of verbs and forms of grammar, than can have possibly been produced by accident. So strong that they…must have some common source…reason to believe Celtic, Gothic, old Persian also had the same origin as Sanskrit.” This heralds the beginning of Modern Linguistics and the discovery of the Indo-European Language Family.

Jones went on to translate the Manu Smriti to English to better administer justice. He also translated Kalidasa’s plays like Abinjana Shakuntalam, which took Europe by storm. He discovered that Chess and Algebra had Indian origins, wrote a treatise on Music, and studying Greek and Indian history, proposed that Sandrocottus mentioned by Megasthenes was Chandragupta. On further study, he also established the river Erranaboas was the Sone (originally called Hiranyabahu) and that Chandragupta last capital Palibothra must have been Pataliputra, now Patna, in Bihar (overturning Prayag, Kannauj, Varanasi etc as candidates). Jones also told a thrilled Europe that India had an ancient God called Buddha, perhaps of African origin, who founded a religion called Buddhism in India,now forgotten. Europe soon discovered that Buddhism was alive and well in the rest of Asia, but Jones’ discoveries launched an earnest inquiry into India and Asia’s history, that primarily relied on literature for the next three decades.

James Prinsep

And then James Prinsep arrived in Calcutta in 1819. A prodigy very different from Jones, with far humbler origins and far less accomplished youth, Prinsep nevertheless made dramatic impacts on the Asiatic Society and scholarship. After working in mints and civil administration, he turned to history in 1832. He transformed the field from ‘scholastic archaeologists’ to ‘field archaeologists’ or ‘travelling antiquarians.’ His intellectual successor Alexander Cunningham said of Prinsep, that between 1833 and 1838, “more of India’s history was reconstructed than before or since.”

The Society faced bankruptcy and a shutdown by Macaulay and Mill, who called Oriental studies “waste paper and accumulation of timber.” But Governor General Auckland restored its funding.

James Prinsep

Coins and PinMen

An army of Orientalist coin collectors, including Horace Wilson, Col James Tod, Charles Masson, General Ventura, helped unravel several aspects of history. Masson collected thirty thousand coins, which brought to light a number of Indo-Greek kings from Theodotus (225 BC), Apollodorus, Menander, Eucradites, Antialkides, Agathocles and Kanerkos (who was later identified as Kanishka by Prinsep). Some of these like the coins of Agathocles had legends in both Greek and Sanskrit (Rajane Agathakulasya). The Sanskrit script was the same as the pin-men script, in Prinsep’s road roller.

Several other pillars including the famous Feroz Lat in Delhi, Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar and in Allahabad had been discovered, with the same pin-men script. The Allahabad pillar, for example, also had two other inscriptions, one of Samudragupta in Sanskrit in Nagari script and Jehangir in Persian. Comparing transcripts Prinsep realized that all three pillars had the same text, not just the same script! The script had also been found at slabs in Bodh Gaya; a stupa at Sanchi; and at Dhauli and at Udayagiri-Khondagiri, both near Bhubaneshvar. The Samudragupta, son of Chandragupta of the Allahabad pillar was of the Solar race, whereas William Jones’ Sandrocottus was of the Lunar race. 

Asoka's Pillar and Buddhist stupa in Vaishali, Bihar

Rock with Asoka's Pali edict in Brahmi script
at Dhauli, Orissa 

Brahmi inscription at Karla caves, Maharashtra
Lower line reads "daanam" ( दानं )

Studying the Sanchi inscriptions, Prinsep observed that several of them ended in the same set of three characters. He brilliantly guessed that they were records of donations, based on similar later inscriptions at other stupas in Buddhist nations. Perhaps they were the phrase “-ssa daanam.” (-’s donation). Now he was confident that the language was Pali, not Sanskrit. With intelligent guessing, and dedicated effort, he decoded the script in six weeks! The Brahmi script was now readable, nearly 1500 years after it had been replaced by its daughter script Nagari.

Sanchi stupa Brahmi inscriptions
ending with daanam

Most of the pin-men (Brahmi) inscriptions began with the phrase “Devaanaampiya PiyaDassi laaja hevam aaha” (“Thus spake King Beloved-of-the-Gods PiyaDassi”), but, who was this king? That continued to be a puzzle. There seemed to be no PiyaDassi in Indian literature. 

Concurrently, Turnour, an Orientalist in Kandy was given a copy of the Mahavamsa, the History of Sri Lanka, by the Thero of the Saffragam monastery. He came across this passage : “King Devenampiya Tissa, induced Dammasoka, Ruler of several kingdoms of Dambadiva (Jambudvipa) to depute his son Mahindu and daughter Sangamitta to Auradhapura to introduce religion of Buddha.”

The Thero also gave Turnour the Dipavamso, which threw a flood of light : “218 years after MahaParinnirvana of Buddha, Piyadassi, son of Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta, Viceroy of Ujjaiyini was inaugurated king.”

Thus, Devanampiya Piyadassi was revealed to be Dammasoka or Dharma Asoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. The wide spread of his pillars and edicts, from Afghanistan to Andhra Pradesh, showed how vast an empire he ruled; it gave details of the Kalinga war, and of Asoka’s change of heart; and of his sending emissaries to spread Buddhism across the world.

Consequences

Inscriptions of the period 300 BC to 300 AD turned out to be in the Brahmi script, in Prakrit or Sanskrit, and so, suddenly, six hundred years of history stood revealed, including the dynasties of the Kshatrapas, the Kushanas, the Shungas, the Satavahanas. The Hathigumpha inscriptions were of king Kharavela of the Mahameghavahana dynasty.

In the twentieth century, Tamil inscriptions in the Tamil Brahmi script were also discovered. The field of palaeography was enriched when it was realized that the Brahmi script is the parent script of both Nagari and Grantham scripts, the latter of which was the parent of scripts of the South East Asian languages like Thai, Burmese, Sumatran, Cambodian etc.

References
1. Buddha and the Sahibs by Charles Allen
2. The Asiatic Society of Bengal by O.P. Kejriwal
3. The Powerpoint presentations of S Swaminathan
4. Essays by James Prinsep, Journal of the Asiatic Society

Video of INTACT lecture Rediscovery of Asoka - lecture in 2013
Audio of 2016 DUJ Lecture on Rediscovery of Brahmi and Asoka - Part 1
Audio of 2016 DUJ Lecture on Rediscovery of Brahmi and Asoka - Part 2

My blogs on Western Orientalists
1. Ellenborough - Abolition of slavery in India
2. Robert Caldwell - discoverer of Munda language family
3. Francis Whyte Ellis - discoverer of Dravidian language family
4. An Englishman's Tamil inscription
5. A mathematician's Poem about Madras
6. Did Macaulay undermine Indian education?
7. Madras and its American connections

My History blogs
Three Perspectives on History - Caldwell, Mark Twain, PT Srinivasa Iyengar
Novel on Samrat Asoka - some speeches
Timelines of Gujarat and Tamilnadu
Timelines of Karnataka and Tamilnadu
Vaishali

Origins of Chemistry
Beginning of Electronics