Nagaswamy - 10 Art of the Pandyas

The Pandyan dynasty ruled from Madurai, for nearly two thousand years, in some form or another.

In the Sangam age, they had contacts with the Romans and the Greeks, as seen by coins of Claudius, Domitian, Nero, Vespasian, Tiberius and Hadrian. Tamil kings issued coins in the Roman style. Tamil literature notes that Roman artisans built palaces for kings and shaped their chariots. But little of the art of the Sangam age survives. An inscription in Poolankurichi talks of temples in the 3^rd century but none such have been discovered yet. Only a few Jaina inscriptions are found in some caves around Madurai from this period.

After the Sangam age, followed the Kalabhra period of which little is known. The first Pandyan empire, starting in the middle of the sixth century with the downfall of the Kalabhras. There were frequent skirmishes between Pandyas and Pallavas. The era of excavated cave temples began then, with Pandyas commissioning about 65, far more than the Pallavas.

The Pillaiyarpatti temple near Karaikkudi has a vattezhuththu inscription of 6^th or 7^th century. In plan and caliber of sculptures, these differ clearly from Pallava. In fact they possibly show some Chalukya influence.

Tamil Inscription, Malayadikurichi, Tamilnadu

Next comes Malaiyadikurichi, commissioned by Sevrukilaan Saatthan, in the 17^th year of Maaran Chataiyan, around 647 AD. The bhakthi movement happened around then and the Alvars Nammalvar, Madhura Kavi, Periyaalvaar and Andal lived in the Pandya country. Saivite saint Gnana Sambandar converted Pandya king Arikesari Maravarma from Jainism to Saivism.

Thirupparankunram, excavated by Sattan Ganapati, a commander under the Pandya Varaguna I, is dedicated to Siva and Vishnu, with their sanctums facing each other. There is a sculpture of Siva dancing in Chatura pose. To the left are Sapta Matras dancing, a unique composition.

Lingodhbhava - Tirumeyyam Satyagiri temple

Thirumeyyam in Pudukottai district has a Siva temple of Satyagiri with an enchanting Lingodbhava, with the pillar depicted from floor to ceiling. The more famous Satyamurthy temple of Vishnu as Anathashayee, is a riot of characters, the grandest such sculpture in India and one of the finest in Indian art.

Anantashayana - Tirumeyyam Satyamoorthy temple
Photo: Siddharth Chandrasekar

The Anaimalai hill of Madurai, which looks like an elephant, has four groups of monuments : Jain beds on top of the hill, Jain sculptures at mid-level, and cave temples of Narasimha and Murugan. The Narasimha temple is excavated in AD 770 by a Pandya commander of Maran Cadaiyan. This commander died halfway during the construction, and his brother, appointed as his successor completed the work.

Murugan and Devasena, in Laadan kovil sanctum

Laadan kovil, Anaimalai

Jain sculptures, Anaimalai

Painted tirthankara, Anamalai Jain caves

Tirthankara with Ambika yakshi, 
Anamalai Jain caves

The Laadan temple of Muruga, has a Brahmin ascetic and possibly a Pandya king, besides the majestic two armed Subrahmanya and his consorts. An inscription says, this was cave temple was the creation of Parivrajaaka, of Vattakurichi.

The Jain Tirthankaras and yakshis on the mid-level, carved on an boulder hanging over a natural cavern. Mahavira, Parshvanatha, Baahubali and Ambika Yakshi are featured. Traces of the original paint on these sculptures can still be seen.

The Anaimalai hill is a fine example of religious harmony with Vishnu, Subrahmanya and Jain monuments at very short distance from each other.

Aritappati also has a rock-cut Linga, from the mother rock, with a Candesa and Ganesha flanking it outside. In-situ lingas and a fondness for depicting Ganesha are the Pandya idiom.

In-situ Linga from mother rock
Aritapatti, Madurai

Candesha
Aritapatti, Madurai

Aritapatti cave temple, near Madurai

The pinnacle of early Pandyan art can be seen in Kalugumalai. Like Mamallapuram, it is incomplete. It a rare monolith, carved from top down, in two finished tiers, after excavating a portion from the slope of the hill, leaving space for the temple in the middle. Its remoteness ensures its anonymity.

It has a full complement of figures: dancing gaNas, directional deities, apsaras, gods and animals. The sculpture rivals mature Pallava art. The ganas jump and dance with exuberance. All profiles are done in excellent proportion, and the sculptors conspicuously demonstrate this mastery. Saying, “The Kalugumalai artists, could make their ganas leap out of their architectural rigidity and jump through space,” Nagaswamy exhibits his virtuosity in creating new English idiom too!

Mridanga Dakshinamurth, Kaluguamlai

Playful ganas, Kalugumalai

Subrahmanya, Kalugumalai

Vishnu, and gaNas, Kalugumalai

gaNas with ghatams

ganas blowing conches (shankha)

UmaMaheshvara, Kalugumalai

The supreme talent and creative diversity of the artist is reserved for the Supreme deities: Siva as UmaMaheshvara, with Parvati passionately turned towards him. “For one desirous of experiencing an overflowing aesthetic joy,” says SaHridaya Nagaswamy, the supreme elegance of Dakshinamurthy is the sculpture to be seen.

Jain tirthankaras, Kalugumalai

Ambika Yakshi, Kalugumalai

We also see artistic excellence of the large repertoire of Jain sculptures, especially in Ambika and the Parsva devatas : such depictions are not seen even in the Pallava region.

Sculptures of the Rajakkalmangalam temple also exhibit a uniquely Pandyan idiom and beauty. This temple no longer exists, but its sculptures are in Tirumalai Nayak Mahal museum in Madurai. With the conquest of Pandyas by the Cholas, the idiom of the latter then took over.

Rajakkamangalam Narasimha
Photo: Kallidai Ram

Rajakkamangalam Vishnu
Photo: Kallidai Ram

Conclusion

The remarkable diversity and depth of scholarship of Dr Nagaswamy is revealed in his papers presented in international fora, in universities, museums and in journals and other publications.

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Video Links

My lecture (in Tamil) on Cave temples of Pandyas

Badri Seshadri lecture (Tamil) on Vettuvan Kovil - Pandya monolith at Kalugumalai

Essay Links

This essay is the last of the series of summaries of papers presented in international seminars by Dr Nagaswamy. The summaries in this series were presented by me at a lecture titled Nagaswamy - Beyond Borders at Tamil Heritage Trusts' Pechu Kacheri 2014 at Tatvaloka, Chennai.

My blogs on history

My blogs on art  

Mukteshvara temple Bhubaneshvar - Seven thousand wonders

Mukteshvara temple

Foreword I wrote essay this for a series on temples, titled Seven Thousand Wonders of India, in Swarajya magazine last year. They stopped after six essays. This is the seventh. Here is the link to the first six essays.

History

Until I visited Bhubaneshvar, I used to think Kanchipuram was the temple capital of India. The difference is that Kanchipuram temples are of Dravidian architecture, while Bhubaneshvar has temples of Nagariarchitecture. Puri gets the fervent devotees, and Konarak gets the UNESCO tag and global acclaim, but Bhubaneshvar has so many marvelous temples, it is a crying shame they are not far more famous. Orissa history too, gets subsumed under the larger Indian narrative – Asoka’s conquest of Kalinga is all we ever hear. But Orissa has a long and amazing history. The Bhaumakaras, Shailodbhavas, Somavamshis, Chodagangas, Gajapatis and other dynasties that ruled Orissa developed and continued a distinct line of Nagari architecture, called Kalinga.

The Mukteshvara temple has no inscriptions, but art historians say it was built in the Somavamshi era, most likely by the king Yayati I.

The largest, grandest, centralest temple of Bhubaneshvar is Lingaraja, in the heart of the old city. But the most beautiful enchanting captivating temple must surely be Mukteshvara. Oddly, very few locals seem to know it, perhaps because it is maintained by the ASI. KedaraGowri temple, equally ancient, just across the street, is far more famous.

A priest in Lingaraja temple told me that the city has one less than one lakh Siva temples – if one more temple had been built, the city would have equaled Kashi in sanctity; so at Siva’s own request, it wasn’t built.

Architecture

Mukteshvara and Siddheshvara are twin temples in the same complex, facing west and east, respectively. Siddheshvara temple is taller, but plainer, with far fewer decorative features. They both have a garbagraha and jaganmohana (or jagmohana – called sabha-mandapa in most Nagari temples). The larger Kalinga temples like Lingaraja and Puri also have two more mandapas called nata-mandira and bhoga-mandira. There are also several small shrines, several with lingas, scattered all over the complex.

Pond and the two temples

The stone used is a distinct reddish Orissa sandstone, locally called rajaraniya. In fact, about a mile away is a larger temple called Rajarani, named not for some royal, but after the stone. It is softer than granite, but not perhaps as soft as soapstone, so yields itself to very intricate sculptures. Here and there one sees damage, but a lot of it marvelously well preserved.

Mukteshvara has two unique features - a torana entrance; and a short surrounding wall. There is also a well to its south called Marici kunda, and a beautiful spring-fed pond to its east.

Torana

The entrance torana is a beautiful arch, which has suffered some damage, but has been restored so masterfully, that it is not at all obvious. Slender beautiful women languidly grace both sides of the arch – which is one sculpture, not a series of blocks. The two ends of the arch rest on amalakas, which top the dressed pillars. The central portion of these pillars are sixteen sided, topped by kirtimukhas having pearl garlands (muktamaala) coming out of their mouths.

Torana and Compound wall

Compound wall

The short decorative compound wall around the Mukteshvara is not seen anywhere else in Bhubaneshvar. Lingaraja has a huge compound wall around it, but most other temples are just open with grounds around them. Even the Siddheshvara temple in the same campus doesn’t have such a wall. The compound wall parallels the several zig-zag cuts and patterns of the temple itself. Its lower part is decorated with a series of panels with patterns; the corner panels have intricate miniature sculptures, in them. Even smaller sculptures decorate the  upper level.

Vimaana

There are five different types of vimaana or shikhara in Nagari architecture. In Kalinga temples, usually the garbhagruha or deula (devaalaya in Odiya language) is of rekha type and the jaganmohana of phamsana type (called pidha in Orissa). The rekha type is the most common among Nagari temples in general and in Kalinga temples in particular. The shikhara can be very plain, or very elaborately carved: older temples in Bhubaneshvar like Lakshmaneshvara, Bharateshvara and some smaller temples like Uttareshvara, are low in decoration; as is Siddheshvara : but Mukteshvara itself is suffuse with decoration and sculpture, unparalleled for a temple of its size. The most elaborate feature of such decoration are gavakshaas : small circles and semicircles, in several intricate, repeating patterns. These are found in Nagari temples like Kashi Vishveshvara in Pattadakkal, also; but for sheer beauty in patterns and the overall pleasing effect, Mukteshvara is among the best.

The rectilinear look of the rekha temples is most distinct: a series of flat layers, slightly receding from their respective lower layers, seeming to curve towards the amalaka at the top. The levels or talaa-s are less visible in rekha devalayas compared to Dravida temples; these levels are called bhumi, and each is marked by a small amalaka called bhumi amalaka.

ratha-s

The vertical partitions, of rekha devaalaya, called ratha-s, are much more starkly visible. A temple may have three, five or seven rathas – the central one is projecting, and the others are often recessed or alternate, between recession and projection when more than three. Mukteshvara is pancha-ratha temple; the corner rathas are shared among the adjacent faces of the temple. The earlier Bhaumakara kings built tri-ratha temples; and the Chodagangas who succeeded the Somavamshis built sapta-ratha temples.

A sculpture in a gavakshaa features in every slab except the bhumi-amalakas in the corner rathas. The anuratha-s between the centre ratha and corner rathas are completely covered in intricate gavakshaa-s all the way to the top. The central ratha has a large panel on each side, called  chandrashaala, which has a circular centre, gana-s on either side, and a kirtimukha pouring out pearls from the top. Slightly above these are images of Nataraja in each side. The front and central portion has an important keystone featuring a seated lion; a common feature in all Kalinga temple.

elements of architecture

The Kalinga equivalents of the adishtaana and paada are called paabhaaga and jangha; these together are called badaa and form the lower part of the temple. These are often plain, but even these are extensively decorated in Mukteshvara. Shaalabhanjika-s adorn the pilasters; some are quite damaged though. Mithuna couples, vyaala-virala-s (riders on lions like in the Kanchi Kailasanatha temple), kapaaTa kanyaa-s, gaja-simha-s (lions riding on elephants) can be seen here and there in recessed niches. 

A lion faced praNaala brings water out from the garbhagriha.

Jaganmohana

The jaganmohana is shorter, squatter, and its shikhara is a series of plain and parallel slabs. But the lower half is just stunning in its complexity and elegance. There are windows in the centre of the northern and southern walls, surrounded by a series of sculptures of frolicking monkeys in a creeper (lathaa); flanked by two elaborate pilasters; the walls on both sides of these pilasters have two pilasters that are in the shape of temples, and a highly segmented corner pilaster, with two cylindrical stambhaa-s in between, around which a naaga is shown climbing. Above the window are two sculptures of kapaaTa-kanyaa-s (women opening or modestly standing behind doors) – these are also repeated on the rekha-deula, as are the naaga stambhas. 

The twelfth century Tamil epic Kalingathu Barani, narrating the conquest of Kalinga by the king Kulottunga Chola, has an entire chapter, in every stanza of which, women are asked to open the door to welcome victorious soldiers. One wonders whether the poet Jayamkondaar, actually visited Orissa, saw these sculptures and was inspired to include this concept in his poem.

jagmohana

The interior of the jaganmohana is just as splendid, especially the ceiling, though it is difficult to photograph in the darkness. A series of beams arranged as octagons and rectangles, alternating, leads to a circular lotus design at the very center. Remarkably, this internal pattern is not even remotely discernible from the external pattern on the roof. The central lotus has saptamaatrika sculptures in its various petals. The alternating design creates interesting patterns in the corners, and the sthapathis have run riot with their imagination, richly endowing it with various sculptures of dancers and musicians, as bracket figures. Kartikeya and a dancing Ganesha flank the central square.

interior of ceiling

Other Sculptures

The lintel over the entrance to the sanctum features navagrahaa-s in a row. Above them is a Gajalakshmi panel in the center.

The miniatures sculptures in small square panels, topped by single gavakshaas in triangles, are the standout sculptures of Mukteshvara. Some of these are in excellent condition, others damaged to varying degrees. Lakulisa, unknown munis by themselves or with disciples, yoginis, dancers, musicians, composite sculptures – the variety is breathtaking. Perhaps the most charming are images of Surya, Kartikeya, and Sarasvati. A tricky sculpture, featuring four bodies of women in gymnastic posture, but sharing only two heads, is quite similar to such sculptures in every kind of temple in every region in India, from Ajanta to Tirunelveli.

Some sculptures of Mukteshvara deula

Unlike most Dravidian temples, the dvaarapaalaka-s aren’t huge and threatening. One barely notices them, carrying a bow and arrow or a trishula, as we enter the temple. Voluptuous women embracing tree branches; smiling nagas and naginis bearing garlands; shy women holding half open doors; these are the most memorable aspects of Mukteshvara.

More sculptures

References

• Lecture by Shyam Raman, THT, 2016
• Site Seminar book, Tamil Heritage Trust, Madras
• The Mukteshvara in Bhubaneshvar, by Walter Smith
• Photos from my visits.

Related Links

Seven thousand wonders of India - Swarajya Series

My blogs on Art 

Mukteshvara - A dream in Sandstone (Saurabh Saxena blog)

Muktesvara temple (TK Krishnakumar blog)

 

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சமூக வணிக கலை தடங்களாக கோயில்கள்

கோயில் என்பது என்ன? பூசைக்கும் புளியோதரைக்கும் புண்ணியத்திற்கும் மட்டும் போகும் இடமா? இசை, நாட்டியம், வணிகம், சமூகம், கிணறு வெட்டல், கல்வி, கடன், கொடை, நிலம், பயிர், கால்வாய் நிர்வாகம், வரி விநியோகம், மருத்துவம் - போன்ற அன்றாட வாழ்விற்கும் கோயில்களுக்கும் என்ன சம்பந்தம்?

"Temples as Socio-Economic and Cultural Centres" : Lecture by Dr Chitra Madhavan, on Saturday, 20th July at 6pm at Tattvaloka, 76, Eldams Road, Teynampet, Chennai - 600 018.