Nagaswamy - 10 Art of the Pandyas

The Pandyan dynasty ruled from Madurai, for nearly two thousand years, in some form or another.

In the Sangam age, they had contacts with the Romans and the Greeks, as seen by coins of Claudius, Domitian, Nero, Vespasian, Tiberius and Hadrian. Tamil kings issued coins in the Roman style. Tamil literature notes that Roman artisans built palaces for kings and shaped their chariots. But little of the art of the Sangam age survives. An inscription in Poolankurichi talks of temples in the 3^rd century but none such have been discovered yet. Only a few Jaina inscriptions are found in some caves around Madurai from this period.

After the Sangam age, followed the Kalabhra period of which little is known. The first Pandyan empire, starting in the middle of the sixth century with the downfall of the Kalabhras. There were frequent skirmishes between Pandyas and Pallavas. The era of excavated cave temples began then, with Pandyas commissioning about 65, far more than the Pallavas.

The Pillaiyarpatti temple near Karaikkudi has a vattezhuththu inscription of 6^th or 7^th century. In plan and caliber of sculptures, these differ clearly from Pallava. In fact they possibly show some Chalukya influence.

Tamil Inscription, Malayadikurichi, Tamilnadu

Next comes Malaiyadikurichi, commissioned by Sevrukilaan Saatthan, in the 17^th year of Maaran Chataiyan, around 647 AD. The bhakthi movement happened around then and the Alvars Nammalvar, Madhura Kavi, Periyaalvaar and Andal lived in the Pandya country. Saivite saint Gnana Sambandar converted Pandya king Arikesari Maravarma from Jainism to Saivism.

Thirupparankunram, excavated by Sattan Ganapati, a commander under the Pandya Varaguna I, is dedicated to Siva and Vishnu, with their sanctums facing each other. There is a sculpture of Siva dancing in Chatura pose. To the left are Sapta Matras dancing, a unique composition.

Lingodhbhava - Tirumeyyam Satyagiri temple

Thirumeyyam in Pudukottai district has a Siva temple of Satyagiri with an enchanting Lingodbhava, with the pillar depicted from floor to ceiling. The more famous Satyamurthy temple of Vishnu as Anathashayee, is a riot of characters, the grandest such sculpture in India and one of the finest in Indian art.

Anantashayana - Tirumeyyam Satyamoorthy temple
Photo: Siddharth Chandrasekar

The Anaimalai hill of Madurai, which looks like an elephant, has four groups of monuments : Jain beds on top of the hill, Jain sculptures at mid-level, and cave temples of Narasimha and Murugan. The Narasimha temple is excavated in AD 770 by a Pandya commander of Maran Cadaiyan. This commander died halfway during the construction, and his brother, appointed as his successor completed the work.

Murugan and Devasena, in Laadan kovil sanctum

Laadan kovil, Anaimalai

Jain sculptures, Anaimalai

Painted tirthankara, Anamalai Jain caves

Tirthankara with Ambika yakshi, 
Anamalai Jain caves

The Laadan temple of Muruga, has a Brahmin ascetic and possibly a Pandya king, besides the majestic two armed Subrahmanya and his consorts. An inscription says, this was cave temple was the creation of Parivrajaaka, of Vattakurichi.

The Jain Tirthankaras and yakshis on the mid-level, carved on an boulder hanging over a natural cavern. Mahavira, Parshvanatha, Baahubali and Ambika Yakshi are featured. Traces of the original paint on these sculptures can still be seen.

The Anaimalai hill is a fine example of religious harmony with Vishnu, Subrahmanya and Jain monuments at very short distance from each other.

Aritappati also has a rock-cut Linga, from the mother rock, with a Candesa and Ganesha flanking it outside. In-situ lingas and a fondness for depicting Ganesha are the Pandya idiom.

In-situ Linga from mother rock
Aritapatti, Madurai

Candesha
Aritapatti, Madurai

Aritapatti cave temple, near Madurai

The pinnacle of early Pandyan art can be seen in Kalugumalai. Like Mamallapuram, it is incomplete. It a rare monolith, carved from top down, in two finished tiers, after excavating a portion from the slope of the hill, leaving space for the temple in the middle. Its remoteness ensures its anonymity.

It has a full complement of figures: dancing gaNas, directional deities, apsaras, gods and animals. The sculpture rivals mature Pallava art. The ganas jump and dance with exuberance. All profiles are done in excellent proportion, and the sculptors conspicuously demonstrate this mastery. Saying, “The Kalugumalai artists, could make their ganas leap out of their architectural rigidity and jump through space,” Nagaswamy exhibits his virtuosity in creating new English idiom too!

Mridanga Dakshinamurth, Kaluguamlai

Playful ganas, Kalugumalai

Subrahmanya, Kalugumalai

Vishnu, and gaNas, Kalugumalai

gaNas with ghatams

ganas blowing conches (shankha)

UmaMaheshvara, Kalugumalai

The supreme talent and creative diversity of the artist is reserved for the Supreme deities: Siva as UmaMaheshvara, with Parvati passionately turned towards him. “For one desirous of experiencing an overflowing aesthetic joy,” says SaHridaya Nagaswamy, the supreme elegance of Dakshinamurthy is the sculpture to be seen.

Jain tirthankaras, Kalugumalai

Ambika Yakshi, Kalugumalai

We also see artistic excellence of the large repertoire of Jain sculptures, especially in Ambika and the Parsva devatas : such depictions are not seen even in the Pallava region.

Sculptures of the Rajakkalmangalam temple also exhibit a uniquely Pandyan idiom and beauty. This temple no longer exists, but its sculptures are in Tirumalai Nayak Mahal museum in Madurai. With the conquest of Pandyas by the Cholas, the idiom of the latter then took over.

Rajakkamangalam Narasimha
Photo: Kallidai Ram

Rajakkamangalam Vishnu
Photo: Kallidai Ram

Conclusion

The remarkable diversity and depth of scholarship of Dr Nagaswamy is revealed in his papers presented in international fora, in universities, museums and in journals and other publications.

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Video Links

My lecture (in Tamil) on Cave temples of Pandyas

Badri Seshadri lecture (Tamil) on Vettuvan Kovil - Pandya monolith at Kalugumalai

Essay Links

This essay is the last of the series of summaries of papers presented in international seminars by Dr Nagaswamy. The summaries in this series were presented by me at a lecture titled Nagaswamy - Beyond Borders at Tamil Heritage Trusts' Pechu Kacheri 2014 at Tatvaloka, Chennai.

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Nagaswamy - 9 Temporal seat of authority

Organization of space and volume are examined, to study location of temporal authority in rural and urban settlements, in ancient Tamil country. The following three aspects are discussed:

• Habitations which followed Vastu and agamic texts
• The conception of divine powers in Brahmasthana
• The experince of such divine power

Nedunalvadai, a Sangam work, describes the construction of a royal palace,describing the use of the Sun’s course on a Chaitra day, usage of pegs and chords to establish lines, invocation of deities and details like door jambs and lintel figures.

Pattinapalai discusses the street layout of Kaveripumpattinam, like warehouses, toll houses, feeding houses and markets of different commodities like pepper, gold, corals, and imported items like camphor and panneer.

Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple

Rare in that it is almost in original condition, with few modifications, the Kanchi Kailsanatha temple is perhaps, the only temple that has

• all 32 Vaastu pada Devatas
• Parivara devataas
• Eleven Rudras, 12 Adityas
• a central vimana built on a Brahmasthaana,
• a praakaara that is based on doubling of the Vastu pada square
• a mandapa with images of Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Durga and Jyeshta

Ekadasha Rudra-s

Dvadasha Aditya-s

Its main vimana and this mandapa represent Purusha and Prakriti. Rajasimha Pallava calls himself Agama Pramaana and Agama Anusaari.

Uttiramerur

This village called Uttarameru Caturvedi mangalam, after one of the titles of Danti Varma Pallavan, is laid out on the principles of Vaishnavite agamic text, Marici Samhita. 

There were Agamavids, experts in agama, and the Brahmin settlements were divided into 12 quarters or Ceris, each named after one of 12 names of MahaVishnu, like Kesava Ceri, Narayana Ceri, Govinda Ceri.Madhava Ceri, Govinda Ceri, Vishnu Ceri, Madhusudana Ceria, Trivikrama Ceri, Vamana Ceri, Sridhara Ceri, Hrishikesha Ceri, Padmanabha Ceri and Damodara Ceri. Canals were named after gods as Ganapati Vaaykkaal, Sarasvati Vaaykaal etc. 

The temples of Siva, Subramanya, Durga, Saptamatrika, Jyestha and Ayyanar are coeval with the Vishnu temple

Assembly Hall

That the Sabha mandapa in the centre of town over which a Vishnu temple has been erected, was the center of the village, can be deduced from its position. 80 secular transactions recording meetings here for 300 years tell their story. Vairamegha Tataaka is a large lake named after the founder king.

The Vishnu temple is a Navamurthi prasthana: it has nine deities.

Uttiramerur  sabha mandapa
Photo: TK Krishnakumar

Capital City: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Excavations by Nagaswamy revealed remnants of a Chola palace to the south west of the Rajendra Choleesvaram temple built by Rajendra Chola. The palace was the centre of the city. A tank at the west called Cholaganga and the locations of other temples indicate that this city was laid out as per Vishnu texts of the 11^th century.

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This essay is one of a series of summaries of papers presented in international seminars by Dr Nagaswamy. The summaries in this series were presented by me at a lecture titled Nagaswamy - Beyond Borders at Tamil Heritage Trusts' Pechu Kacheri 2014 at Tatvaloka, Chennai.

Uttaramerur inscription - A THT discussion (Youtube video)

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Nagaswamy - 8 Pallava Influence on Chalukya Art

Vikaramaditya Chalukya Kannada inscription
Kanchi Kailasanatha temple
Photo: Swaminathan Natarajan

An inscription of Chalukya Vikramaditya on a pillar in Kanchi Kailasanatha temple, talks of Srimad Anivaarita Punyavallabha. Scholars have remarked on the striking resemblance between Kanchi Kailasanatha temple built by Rajasimha Pallava around 725 AD and the Virupaaksha temple called of Pattadakkal, built by Vikramaditya’s queen Lokamadevi. This temple was originally called Lokesvara. Nearby is the Trailokyesvara temple built by Lokamadevi’s sister Trailokyamadevi, another queen of Vikaramaditya. This latter temple is now called Mallikarjuna temple.

Vikramaditya Chalukya inscription
Virupaksha temple, Pattadakkal

Two Kannada inscriptions on the pilasters of Lokesvara (or Lokamadevishvara) temple were reinterpreted. One stated that Gundan Anivaarita Achaari was the architect who built the northern side of the temple. This is similar to the name of the scribe of the Chalukya inscription in Kanchi Kailsanatha temple.

The other says the southern side was built by Sarva Siddhi Achaari.

The Kanchi inscription notes that Vikramaditya entered the city without causing any destruction (Kanchim avinaashyaiva pravishya काञ्चीं अविनाश्यैव प्रविश्य ). Later it reads:

Narasimha varmaNa nirmita sila maya Raajasimheshvaraadi dEvakula prabutha suvarNa raashi pratyarpaNopaarjitaH puNyaH

नरसिंहवर्मण निर्मित सिल मय राजसिंहेश्वरादि देवकुल प्रबूत सुवरण राशि प्रत्यर्पणोपार्जित पुण्यः

He returned the wealth and the jewellery, to the temple itself, astounded by its beauty. Until recently, scholars attributed the resemblance of the Lokesvara  temple to Vikramaditya, but no doubt the architect of the temple had a great role

While the Pallavas and Chalukyas fought bitterly on the political and military levels, they inspired each other in the fields of art and culture, Nagaswamy concludes.

Left: Lokeshvara or Lokamadevishvara (Virupaksha)
Right: Trailokyamadevishvara (Mallikarjuna)

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This essay is one of a series of summaries of papers presented in international seminars by Dr Nagaswamy. The summaries in this series were presented by me at a lecture titled Nagaswamy - Beyond Borders at Tamil Heritage Trusts' Pechu Kacheri 2014 at Tatvaloka, Chennai.

My blogs on history

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Kanchi Kailasanatha temple

Pattadakkal Virupaksha (Lokamadevishvara) temple

My lecture on Kailasanatha temple

Nagaswamy - 7 Dolmens: Hero Stones

Dolmens, cairn circles, hero stones are megalithic burial sites seen all over Tamilnadu. Dolmens go by various names like Vaaliyaar veedu, kurakku pattadai, Pancha Paandavar padukkai and more popularly as veerakkal or nadukal.  Often personal effects of the buried are also found in small pots with the sarcophagus.

Megalithic cairn circle, Tirupporur
Photo : VSS Iyer

Dolmen 1
photo: Sukavana Murugan

Dolmen 2
photo: Sukavana Murugan

While usually dated to 7^th and 8^th centuries BC,  some have been dated to as late as the fifth century AD.

Tolkappiyam lists six stages in planting a memorial stone – nadukal

• Selection of suitable stone
• Quarrying it
• Soaking it in water
• Planting and consecrating after carving the image
• Offerings
• Prayers

Other texts list similar stages, but include a final stage where a King or Chieftan builds a temple over the planted stone. These are also listed as kaatchi kaadhai, kalkoL kaadhai, neerpadaik kaadhai, nadukar kaadhai and vaazhthu kaadhai in Silappadikaram.

A Purananuru poem on the death of Kopperunchola by the poet Pottiyar ends “Let us sing the glory of our patron who has become a planted stone.”

A burial urn was made for Nedumavalavan, and a poem addresses a potter that to make his urn, “the whole world should be used as a wheel, and lofty mountain as a lump of clay, suited to his fame.”

Burial urn, Adichanallur, Tamilnadu
Inscriptions Exhibit, Madras University 

A poem of Avvaiyaar on the death of Athiyaman Neduman Anji says a Nadukal was erected for him. It was decorated with peacock feathers and liquor was sprinkled

Nagaswamy connects these customs with current Hindu cremation ceremonies. He cites the contemporary funeral of a Brahmin woman, after whose death two stones were planted, one on the bank of a river, another at the entrance to the house of the deceased; called nadi-theera-kuNDa and gruha-theera-kuNDa respectively. Water was sprinkled over the stone with a towel (vasa udaka) and sesame seeds ( tilodaka ) offered. A potful of drinking water was placed over the stones.A lamp was kept burning throughout. This Vedic ceremony strongly resembles the ceremonies for Athiyaman sung by Avvaiyaar.

The very large number of dolmens and hero stones suggest that these were for all classes of people, including women, in the ancient times. Later this was limited to men of valour and fame.

Bodhyana, Katyayana, and the Vaikhanasa Sutra describe procedures for burial of dead or their ashes. Udayana’s elephant Badraapati which fell in war, was honored by a life size stucco image in a temple and regular worship was arranged, as related in Perunkadai. 

In later times Raja Raja built a colony of housing for dancers around the Big temple. A colony of dancers was established around the temple, Brahmins were fed monthly and a water shed erected for travelers. There were arrangement for exposition of kaavya-s and puraaNa-s. This shows that deification of dead and customs to commemorate them were universalised.

Photo Credits

Dolmens: Sukavana Murugan, Pennar archaeological forum, Krishnagiri 

Burial urns : Inscriptions Exhibit, University of Madras

Cairn circle : VSS Iyer

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This essay is one of a series of summaries of papers presented in international seminars by Dr Nagaswamy. The summaries in this series were presented by me at a lecture titled Nagaswamy - Beyond Borders at Tamil Heritage Trusts' Pechu Kacheri 2014 at Tatvaloka, Chennai.

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Nagaswamy - 6 Temples of Village Gods

Village shrine under a tree
(near Kanyakumari, Tamilnadu)

Village temples in India owe their origin to tribal belief in nature spirits and in their benevolent and malevolent powers. Trees, rivers, mountains, tanks, the sea, lightning, wind and the like have grown into making village temples. Fertility cults, Mother Goddess, Village goddess, Border Guardian are also common

Village guardian deity (near Vilupuram, Tamilnadu)
with uniformed police!

City Goddesses

There are references to the deity of the city of Pushkalavati in inscriptions. Campapati was the Goddess of the city of Kaveripumpattinam, also called Campa, as was Madurapati for Madurai.

Ayyanar, near Arasur, Vilupuram district
Photo: Thyagarajan Ekambaram

Nagaswamy suggests that the hunter Revanta, son of Surya, hunting with dogs on his horse, has taken the shape of Ayyan Mahashasta, popularly called Ayyanar. Revanta is mentioned in texts in Kerala while Silappadikaram refers to Sasta or Masaattan. Huge terracotta horses, or elephants, related to Ayyanar can be found in every village in Tamilnadu, often accompanied by his consorts Purana and Pushkala. Pidari gods can also be found in several villages.

Revanta and dogs,
Ayyanar temple, near Vilupuram

Adayar Munisvarar

SaptaMatrika and Nagas

Temples dedicated to SaptaMatrikas have a place in the layout of villages. Naga cults are omnipresent also, the antiquity of which is lost in the prehistoric period. Stones with inscribed snakes and worship of anthills considered as snake dens are common. This serpent cult was associated with fertility cults, worshipping of snake is believed to help deliver children.

Naga images, Perungulam, near Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu

Hero Stones

Worship of heroes who have laid down their lives for community are commemorated with hero stones, called Nadukal, found in thousands in Tamil Nadu, Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Saurashtra and Himachal Pradesh. Often erected as dolmens, with three upright slabs and topped by a capstone, they have the figure of the hero carved on the slabs, usually with weapons like spears, sword or bows and arrow. Accessories like a container with lid, a spouted pitcher or a mirror are often shown with them.

A common belief was that a heroic death ended in an ascent to heaven. The spirit of the hero is believed to reside in the stone and act as a guardian. When communities migrate they take their hero stones and beliefs with them. Some of these heroes are elevated to status of deities. Often these may be community heroes even unfairly executed by orders of a king.

Madurai Veeran, Sudalai Madan, Annanmaar, Karuppanan have such legends around them.

nadukal - hero stone - man who killed a tiger

Brave Animals

In an incident where a hero guarding buffaloes was killed by robbers, but his dog chased the robber, and was also killed. Villagers honored both dog and master by erecting hero stones and portraying their figures. This is oldest known memorial for an animal. A rooster also earned a hero stone in the 7^th century!

Hero stone for two dogs which died fighting a wild boar
8th-9th century
Inscriptions Exhibit, Madras University

Chaste Women

A chaste wife dying in a sati, a wronged women, these too become objects of worship. Kannagi of Silappadikaram, who was worshipped Vira maa pattini is the outstanding example. Tribals to emperors thronged to worship her.

Renuka, mother of Parasurama, whose was ordered to be beheaded by her husband is also one such goddess. In several temples, the severed head of Renuka is the object of worship. Offerings of food, animal sacrifices and liquor are common and are then ceremoniously partaken by worshippers. Nagaswamy opines that such animal sacrifices are blown out of proportion.

sati stone - Madras Egmore museum

Folk Festivals

Celebrated annually, with communal dancing and singing, trances and soothsaying, prayers to ward off diseases and troubles, holding courts to solve domestic problems and disputes, folk festivals play an important part of village life. These are the prime inspiration for folk music and dance. Hundred of ballads commemorate folk heroes. Since village folk are excessively conservative, their dresses ornamentation and mode of singing have been conserved for centuries. Folk customs have merged into the classical in later times. 

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This essay is one of a series of summaries of papers presented in international seminars by Dr Nagaswamy. The summaries in this series were presented by me at a lecture titled Nagaswamy - Beyond Borders at Tamil Heritage Trusts' Pechu Kacheri 2014 at Tatvaloka, Chennai.

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Nagaswamy - 5 Indian Pictures of Governor Peter Anker

The Ethnographical Museum at the University of Oslo owns a collection of pictures, mainly water colours, from the collection of Peter Anker, Governor of Tranquebar from 1788 to1806, when it was a Danish colony. During a career full of war, diplomacy, economic difficulties, he still resourcefully collected several 13^th century bronzes and maps of towns, European fortifications, and landscapes. They were sold after his death to King Christian VIII of Denmark and are now housed in the National Museum in Copenhagen.

Some of these are:

• The Dansborg fortress
• A drawing of Kalakkadu, Tinnevelly
• A rest house in Mayavaram
• Ruins of old castle in Madura, age of which it has not been possible to discover
• Gingee fortress in Karnatik
• The big gate in the pagoda of Seringam in Cauvery river, the largest pagoda in India
• The Jaggernaut pagoda on North-eastern coast of India

These pictures show a British attachment, in their similar to the Clive Album in Victoria & Albert Museum, opines Nagaswamy. He further states that, “One is apt to believe

• That Peter Anker came to love the nature of India
• That he respected Hindu culture
• That he was interested in Indian Architecture

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This blogpost is the summary of one of several papers authored by Dr Nagaswamy, which I presented as a lecture at THT Pechu Kacheri 2014. The series is Nagaswamy - Beyond borders   

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Nagaswamy - 4 Jain Art under the Pallavas

The earliest reference to Jain art under the Pallavas, is of Simhanandi in the LokaVibhaaga in Saka 380 or 455 AD. A copper plate of Simhavarman circa 560 AD records gift of a land to Vajranandi, belonging to gana of Nandisangha, in the village Parithikunru, or Vardhamaanesvara Dharmatheertha.

There is an excavated but unfinised cave at Vilapakkam in North  Arcot perhaps of the first Mahendra Varma’s period.

Chandraprabha temple, Tiruparuttikunram, Kanchipuram

Rampant vyala, Chandraprabha temple

A Jain temple dedicated to Chandraprabha in Tiruparithikunram, near Kanchipuram, is assigned to the beginning of 8^th century by TN Ramachandran, which is a two storeyed structure. The upper storey seems to be of the Vijayanagara period. The lower floor has rampant vyalas typical of Pallava temples in Kanchi. The ground floor sanctum is closed, but there is a sanctum in the upper floor, similar to the Varadaraja temple in Kanchi. There was passage now blocked, proving this was a saandhaara temple.

Bahubali, cave at Kundavai Jinalayam, Tirumalai, Polur

Tirthankankara, Kundavai Jinalayam

The Jain temple in Tirumalai, near Polur, has sculptures of various periods. The earliest of these are of Parsvanatha with attendants, a seated Tirthankara and Bahubali, undoubtedly Pallava images. The elephants above the panel are in Mamallapuram style. An inscription here refers to an Acharya Arishtanemi of Kadiakottur.

Below a seated Mahavira, are two lines of inscription Tamil, covered by the built up floor.

A group of twenty four Tirthankaras in Thirunaathakunru may be of this period also. A golden yakshi, Ponniyakki image, commissioned by Naaranan in the 50^th year of NandiVarma Pallava, is in in Panchapaandavan malai.

An image of a seated Tirthankara in greenish stone in a modern Jaina temple in Saatamangalam, may be assigned to this period. Jaina sculptures are found in Karuppan Kunru. Bhitti, prastaara, griva and shikara elements show that Jain temples had an architecture similar to Brahminical temples of the region.

Tirthankara Rishabanatha, Karuppankunru

Traces of paintings may be seen in Armamalai Jain cave in North Arcot.

The devotional poems cited in Yaapparunkaalam, describing vividly Tirthankaras and Paarshvadevatas, are soul stirring works, very much like Tevaram and Divya Prabhandam.

Credits  These photos of Jain monuments and art were provided by Prof Kanaka Ajita Doss, retired professor of Botany, Presidency College, Madras

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This blogpost is the summary of one of several papers authored by Dr Nagaswamy, which I presented as a lecture at THT Pechu Kacheri 2014. The series is Nagaswamy - Beyond borders   

Essay Links

Kundavai Jinaalayam - part 1 (in Tamil)

Kundavai Jinaalayam - part 2 (in Tamil)

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Shyam Raman's lecture on Jainism in Kanchi

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Nagaswamy - 2 Chidambaram and Bengal

Chidambaram gopuram - inside view

An inscription dated 1262 AD in Chidambaram Nataraja temple mentions uttaraa padattu dakshina raadhattu gangoli tiru ciRRambala uDaiyaar aana uDaiyaar Ishvara shivar. “உத்தராபதத்து தக்ஷிண ராடத்து கங்கொலி  திருச்சிற்றம்பல உடையார் ஆன  உடையார் ஈசுவர சிவர்”

Nagaswamy connects this reference to a Udayiyaar Isvar Shiva mentioned in an inscription in Tribhuvanam temple, built by Kulottunga the 3rd in 1210 AD. He was the royal priest to the king and was also royal priest to Kulottunga’s successor RajaRaja III. He also commissioned a temple in Acyutamangalam.

There are several references to priests from Bengal serving as Rajaguru for the Chola kings. Vikrama Chola in 1125 had SrikanTa Siva of Gauda desa, which is today’s Bengal, Kulottunga II in 1150 had Dhyaana Siva also of Bengal as Royal priest, who wrote commentaries on 28 aagamaas. A Gangoli Umapathi Devar is mentioned in Kanchipuram in 1172.

Vikrama Chola made large donations to Chidambaram, covering balipitha, towers, enclosures and building surrounding the shrine with gold. He built  a great chariot for the processional festival of Nataraja, studded with gems and pearls and instituted a festival on puraTTaadhi and uttiraTTaadhi.

Naraloka Vira, a commander in Vikrama’s army, consecrated images of Jnana Sambandar and Bhattacharya, and arranged for verses of Sambandar to be sung in the temple. He also consecrated images of Gnana Sambanda and a Bhattacharya, which suggests an eastern Saivite aacharya.

भट्टाचार्य इति श्रुतां भुवि शिवां मूर्ति शिवां यो वहन्

संवादं किल वेद बाह्य समयङघातस्य चक्रे पुरा ॥

BhaTTaacarya defeated non-Vedic scholars in debate to establish Saivism. These references to Gangoli and Bhattaacharya are the earliest references in inscription, anywhere in India.

Other earlier references to Bengal include Appar mentioning a temple called Mahasthaana, which is in modern Bangladesh. Gnana Sambandar sings of Vedic Brahmins from the Gangetic delta, who settled in Sirkali.

Gnana Sambandar - Chidambaram gopuram

An eight armed Ardhanari Surya, unique to Tamil Nadu, is found in the Darasuram temple – this is Maartaanda Bhairava, introduced by these Acharyas from eastern regions. The four gopurams of the Chidambaram Nataraja temple also have eight armed three faced Surya images.

Marthanda Bhairava  - Darasuram

This blogpost is the summary of one of several papers authored by Dr Nagaswamy, which I presented as a lecture at THT Pechu Kacheri 2014. The series is Nagaswamy - Beyond borders   

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